Family Planning — Climate currents, caplin and kittiwakes

By Jodi Di Menna

Photo by Yathin S Krishnappa (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Measuring Up The climate systems around the Atlantic — from the southern United States up to Greenland and from northwestern Africa and Europe into northern Asia — in large part depend on the North Atlantic Oscillation. In simple terms, the North Atlantic Oscillation index refers to the pressure difference between the low-pressure air mass over Iceland and the high-pressure air mass over the Azores, a cluster of nine islands off the coast of Portugal. When there is a large contrast between the two air masses, the index is calculated to be positive. When the pressure difference is about average, the index is zero. And when it’s below average, the index is negative. A positive index (or a large contrast between the air masses) results in colder, drier conditions over the northwestern Atlantic and Mediterranean regions, but warmer and wetter weather in northern Europe, the eastern United States and parts of Scandinavia. Most climate models show that with a one per cent annual increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the pressure difference in the atmosphere over Iceland versus over the Azores increases, which means the index goes up and Canada’s Maritimes get blasted with colder, drier conditions. In fact, the trend in the North Atlantic Oscillation index has been toward mostly positive values over the past 30 years. Scientists link this trend to everything from milder winters in Europe to changes in sea-ice cover around Labrador and Greenland to changes in ocean circulation and fish and zooplankton distribution. -JD

For the black-legged kittiwakes nesting on the steep rocky cliffs around Witless Bay, N.L., a global-scale shift in the atmosphere is personal: Their family planning depends on it. Canadian Wildlife Service scientists have found that the success of kittiwake reproduction depends in large part on the North Atlantic Oscillation — the massive circulation pattern that rules much of the climate of the North Atlantic Ocean. It’s a worrisome find, since climate experts predict climate change will throw the oscillation out of whack.

John Chardine and his colleagues have been measuring the breeding success of the kittiwakes on the islands in Witless Bay since the early 1990s. During his observations, Chardine has seen the colonies shrink in overall size and vary tremendously from year to year in reproductive success.

In a good year, an average of between one and two chicks per nest would fledge. In the bad years, almost all the nests failed. “In a survey of a thousand nests, you might find 10 chicks. I had whole plots that I was studying where not a single chick would be fledged,” Chardine says.

Suspecting that the win-some, lose-some pattern was linked to the kittiwakes’ favoured meal — caplin, a small oily fish — Chardine began to examine the ocean conditions during the low reproduction years.

He found was that when the surface water was colder than normal, the birds failed. “We know that caplin distribution in the water is temperature related. So we think the mechanism that causes this failure is temperature changes in the water from year to year, which affect the distribution of caplin.”

But the larger question remained: What was causing the big fluctuations in water temperature?  “I had known that the North Atlantic Oscillation affected water temperatures south of Greenland and into the east coast of Newfoundland,” recalls Chardine, “so I started looking at the numbers.” 

In particular, he examined the index that is calculated each year for the North Atlantic Oscillation and compared it to the kittiwakes’ breeding success. As the index went up (which indicates colder conditions around the island of Newfoundland; see “Measuring Up,” below), the birds did poorly. When the index was negative (indicating warmer conditions), the birds did well. That finding doesn’t bode well for the birds, given that most climate models predict an increase in the North Atlantic Oscillation index over the next 100 years as a result of human-induced climate change.

Chardine suspects the link between the index and breeding is the caplins’ dislike of cold surface water. That means the fish aren’t readily available when the birds need them most.
“When you decrease the water temperatures, caplin delay their spawning. So we think one problem simply could be timing, in that the kittiwakes couldn’t get the caplin when their chicks were hatching.”

The importance of Chardine’s findings extends beyond the fate of the kittiwake population. “The birds are a very useful indicator for marine environmental quality from one year to the next,” he says.

Furthermore, the upward trend in the North Atlantic Oscillation index could have a wide-ranging influence. “It doesn’t just have an effect on kittiwakes. It affects cod and lobster and a bunch of other species,” explains Chardine. “It is an important number.”

Endangered Species on the Brink

By April Overall

Photo by: Bert de Tilly

The Canadian Wildlife Federation is kicking off the New Year with a new crop of projects to fund. In 2011, the Endangered Species Program is supporting an array of new species – from the tiny Olympia oyster to the gargantuan killer whale.

Olympia Oyster
The Olympia oyster is the sole oyster native to British Columbia and in 2003; it was listed as of special concern due to over-harvesting, sediment loads and pollution. The Centre for Shellfish Research at Vancouver Island University and the World Fisheries Trust are joining forces to boost monitoring efforts for the oyster as well as learn more about the population’s biological and habitat requirements. 

American Eels 
Assessed as of special concern in 2006, American eels in Nova Scotia have gone unnoticed for many years until now. Their Lake Ontario-Upper St. Lawrence comrades are at risk due to habitat alteration, dams, fishery harvest, fluctuation in ocean conditions and the effects of acid rain. The Bluenose Coastal Action Foundation will work to discover how Nova Scotian populations are fairing, as well as learning how their habitat affects their health.

Woodland Caribou 
One of the reasons behind the woodland caribou’s threatened status is that their population seems to be decreasing due to predation. Many calves don’t survive their first year of life due to being preyed upon by predators like wolves and black bears. Researchers at the University of Alberta’s biology department are working to reduce this threat during calving season. Read more about this project, here!

Lake Sturgeon in Saskatchewan
In the last century, the Saskatchewan River Watershed lake sturgeon numbers have dropped dramatically due to overfishing, habitat loss and fragmentation. Researchers from the Department of Biology at the University of Saskatchewan are studying the habitat preferences of young lake sturgeon. 

Cutthroat Trout 
Researchers of the Department of Zoology at the University of British Columbia are studying the environmental, biological and human factors that lead to interbreeding between the region’s native westslope cutthroat trout and the introduced rainbow trout. This will help researchers determine how best to manage at risk westslope cutthroat trout populations.

Eastern Ribbon Snake 
The Eastern ribbon snake has been listed as threatened due primarily to insufficient knowledge of the species. The Mersey Tobeatic Research Institute is hoping to change all that in Nova Scotia by increasing our knowledge of the area occupied by the species as well as determining its habitat preferences during the winter months.

Lake Sturgeon
Using acoustic tags, researchers with the University of Lethbridge will track endangered lake sturgeon in the South Saskatchewan River to learn more about the fish’s distribution, seasonal habitat use, and critical habitat. 

Snaketail Drangonfly 
The Atlantic Canada Conservation Data Centre is conducting a survey for the pygmy snaketail dragonfly along the Restigouche River in New Brunswick and the St. Mary’s River in Nova Scotia. The species was listed as of special concern in 2008, but since adults are hard to find, researchers are reliant on their exuviae (the skin they shed when they hatch).

Nooksack Dace
The endangered nooksack dace is threatened by extreme low flows in their habitat due to surface and groundwater extraction. Researchers at the University of British Columbia are studying the habitat needs of the nooksack dace to find out what kind of flow is needed to protect the species.

Blanding’s Turtle
Approximately 40 per cent of freshwater turtles around the world have been listed by the IUCN as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable. Learning every facet of their lives is critical if we are to save these reptiles. As such, researchers at Acadia University in Nova Scotia are studying the reproductive system of Canada’s Blanding’s turtle. They will research why there is such low fertility in the Nova Scotian population, how females determine fertilization, and what role territoriality plays in the reproduction system.

At-risk Turtles
Nest predation is a leading threat to the survival of turtle young; as such, researchers are increasingly utilizing nest caging which ultimately reduces nest predation from 90 per cent to 10 per cent. What researchers haven’t tested is how nest caging affects hatchling survival. That is just what researchers will examine through a study by Laurentian University.

Killer Whale
The northern resident killer whale population was deemed Threatened in 2001 due to their small population sizes, low reproductive rates, mysterious declines in numbers and human threats. The Gitga’at Land and Resource Stewardship Society and the North Shore Cetacean Society are working to identify critical habitat for Northern resident killer whales in Caamano Sound, British Columbia.

Western Painted Turtle
Due to human disturbances, the western painted turtle’s numbers are diminishing, leading assessment agencies to list it as at-risk. Thompson Rivers University is working to collect critical data about this reptile’s west coast habitat in the Arrow Lakes Reservoir in order to properly monitor the health of the population.

Fishways 
Hydropower and water management dams act as barriers to migrating fish. Fishways, meant to give fish a spot to pass through the barrier, have rarely been studied for their effectiveness. In 2005, a vertical slot fishway was installed on the Richelieu River in Quebec; it seemed to be effective in passing sturgeon and was designed to allow for entire fish communities to pass through. A Carleton University research project will test its effectiveness in this regard in order to establish design criteria for Canada’s fishways.

Turtle By-catch
Recent research has found that certain commercial fisheries methods could result in considerable amounts of bycatch including an array of turtle species like snapping, painted, musk and map turtles due to the fact that the reptiles can’t breathe while netted. A Carleton University research project is working to modify the nets in order to drive down the number of turtles caught in freshwater fishing in eastern Ontario.

Beluga Whale 
The St. Lawrence beluga whale was hunted from the 1600s to the mid 1900s, driving down their population to minimal numbers. As a result, they’ve been designated as threatened. Surviving belugas in the region have divided into various groups; however researchers are scratching their heads as to the purpose of this subdivision. Researchers at Saint Mary’s University are working to identify the factors that led to this subdivision as well as assessing how the structure affects their health.

Oregon Spotted Frog
With only three breeding populations left in Canada and 500 frogs keeping the species from extirpation, the Oregon spotted frog (Rana pretiosa) is Canada’s most at risk amphibian.  Their status is due to the lack of breeding and rearing habitats suitable to the frog. Researchers at Simon Fraser University are working to determine which method of re-introduction is best for the species.

Eggs-pecting

By April Overall

In just a few short weeks, songbirds will come flitting back to our backyards, searching for scraps to build their nests. But what happens when it’s built? How do females bond with their chicks? How do chicks get their mother’s attention? We’ve got all the answers. Just keep reading!

Sitting Pretty

Why do some birds lay one egg while others lay five per clutch? A University of California San Diego study set out to find out just that. Researchers examined the clutch sizes of 5,290 bird species and found that birds with a short life span or a low survival rate tend to lay more eggs per clutch. Birds that have longer life spans, on the other hand, lay fewer eggs per clutch but spend more time nurturing the hatchlings.

It seems environment, health, nutrition and predation are key factors behind these clutch sizes. Tropical birds generally have smaller clutch sizes due to a relatively stable climate plus with a high predation rate, the fewer eggs you have in one basket, the better for the species. Climate change is threatening to throw all this out of whack. What will happen to these tropical birds, that have adapted to predictable climates, when climate change rears its ugly head and sends temperature fluctuations their way? We’ll have to wait and see how it will affect clutch sizes and these species as a result.

Mommy Dearest

The mother child bond is created before the egg is even hatched. According to research conducted by the Zoology Department at the University of Cambridge, female canaries actually communicate with their young before they’ve hatched by changing the conditions within the egg. In turn, chicks learn what kind of life they’ll lead once they hatch.  If chicks get a message that their parents will be generous, they’ll beg more once they’re hatched. But if they get the message that their parents won’t be as attentive, they’ll gain more weight in the egg and won’t be as demanding after they’ve hatched.

It’s Getting Hot in Here

Although most songbirds lay one egg per day, they don’t start sitting on them until the last or second-last egg has been laid. That way, they can time when they start to hatch. A Cornell Lab of Orinthology study found that bluebird eggs are usually exposed to temperatures below 75˚F, but once the female tucks them underneath her, their temperatures skyrocket to 96˚F to 105˚F.

However, if eggs are exposed to warmer weather (between 75˚F and 96˚F) for longer periods of time, chicks are at risk of abnormal development and even death. In large clutches it’s usually the first eggs laid that are more likely not to hatch.

Feed me!

Once the eggs are hatched, parents work overtime trying to get all their little ones fed. But how does a hatchling ensure they get enough to eat? They use their beaks and a good set of pipes! According to BMC Ecology, Jackson’s golden-backed weaver parents are able to distinguish each chick’s call. Researchers found that the hungrier a chick got, the more it changed the length and pitch of its calls and the more unique their calls became.

Copycat….errr….bird

Just like toddlers, young songbirds mimic their parents when they learn to talk. And just like toddlers, it sounds like babbling to start. But this babbling is important to learning speech, or song in the case of songbirds.

MIT researchers found that songbirds are equipped with two brain pathways, but only one is fully developed at birth. Young songbirds must wait it out while the other matures – hence the babbling. It allows them to make mistakes and learn from them – a critical step in learning how to sing correctly. 

Eel Update

y Jerika Bradford

Photo: Evan Hall

American eel populations in Ontario have decreased by an alarming 90 per cent since the 1980’s,  resulting in the species’ current listing as “threatened.” Eels are faced with many challenges. Climate change is warming and acidifying the ocean, water contaminants are increasing, and hydrodams are destroying their habitat and blocking their upstream migration route. It’s no wonder eels are in trouble!

They may not be cute, but eels play an important role in our aquatic ecosystem. They are a top predator in lakes and help keep other species populations in check.

What We’re Doing About It

Since 2011, CWF has been working alongside the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Arnprior Fish and Game Club in the Arnprior area of the Ottawa River. We’re getting our hands dirty tracking down radio-tagged eels, which travel far upstream.

We’ve strategically set up small temporary eel ladders across Arnprior to see if juvenile eels are attempting to migrate upstream at such an early stage of development. If juvenile eels slither their way through our ladders and right into the live trap, they will then get radio tagged and released to continue on with their journey, with our researchers following close behind.

What Are the Next Steps?

Even though we’re still in the early stages of tagging, collecting and analyzing data, CWF’s Director of Conservation, Dr. David Browne, predicts that the results will confirm what he has speculated all along: juvenile eels are trying to migrate upstream but are faced with many challenges related to habitat loss, and adult eels are being killed in large numbers—as much as 40 per cent—by hydroelectric dams as they migrate downstream.

There is good news, some eels are successfully completing their migration journey unharmed! The data from this project will pinpoint the eels’ peak migration and how and where they travel. This is necessary in order to implement an effective and credible American eel recovery plan that will boost the eels’ access to their habitat. Whether this plan will involve implementing more eel-friendly turbines or shutting them down during peak migration can only be determined by further research.

Drones

By April Overall

Drones. We’re already using them to capture the moment as couples say “I do”.  And in no time at all, they’ll be dropping off your next book club pick at your door step. But did you know that drones might become a central tool for wildlife conservation too?  Until recently, conservation biologists were required to make the trek on foot, climb tall trees, or travel by helicopters and planes to track wildlife. There were no guarantees that they’d be able to get a clear photo or even the most accurate data. And sending researchers out to remote locations can be costly and time consuming. Read on to explore how drones are changing the game for wildlife conservation.

Drones in Canada
One cannot write a story about the use of drones in wildlife conservation research within Canada without giving credit to Dr. David Bird, an Emeritus Professor of wildlife biology at McGill University and the Founding Editor of The Journal of Unmanned Vehicle Systems. Alongside his colleagues, Paul Pace, a retired Canadian government drone expert, as well as James Junda, a former Masters student of David Bird’s, they are working in tandem to push this technology to new heights in the name of conservation.

Researchers like Bird typically use two basic drones in their research: fixed-wing and rotary machines often referred to as Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) or drones.  Fixed-wing UAS look quite similar to planes, but are naturally much smaller and can fly for up to 20 hours (ideal for beyond the line of sight research like tracking whale pods). Rotary machines on the other hand resemble tiny helicopters and fly for 20 minutes on average (perfect for snapping pictures of bird nests). What they do with them is nothing short of amazing.

Tracking Migrations
Bird and his colleagues are currently working to track song sparrows on the Gulf Islands. Researchers at the University of Western Ontario have affixed radio transmitters on these birds to study their local movements and find their nests. Currently, researchers are forced to walk all over the island with a hand-held antenna and receiver in the hopes that they’ll pick up radio signals from the birds and find their location. But Bird has a better plan. This fall he and Pace are affixing a small receiver to a rotary drone to track down the birds. When they fly the drone over the island, the receiver will tell researchers where the song sparrows have decided to nest. 

Controlling Invasive Species
Researchers in the United States have found that drones can even help weed out invasive species. In Hawaii’s Haleakala National Park, an invasive weed called miconia has posed a threat to the native plants in the area. In 2012, researchers used a drone to fly over the park and snap pictures, in the hopes of identifying the areas that miconia lay.
Researchers retrieved the drone and its pictures and were able to locate the areas where the weed was rampant so rangers could remove them.

Fighting poachers
In Kenya and Nepal, elephants and rhinoceroses are at a high risk of being killed by poachers for their tusks. To combat this appalling practice, conservationists are using drones to spot poachers so authorities can stop them in their tracks. “It’s more the threat that the plane could be up there that might make poachers think twice about going after illegally caught game,” says Bird. “In Nepal, it’s working well. The poaching is going down to almost zero per cent because of the use of drones.”

Learning Preferred Nesting Locations
Bird and Pace have begun working with a farmer who owns a hobby farm in Kincardine, Ontario. Tom Franklin grows alfalfa for his cows, however he’s learned that bobolinks like nesting in his crops. In order to save the nests during harvest, the threesome plan  to fly a drone with an infrared camera installed on it over the field. The camera will hopefully pick up the heat signatures that a warm nest will give off, and thus, its location so Franklin can avoid  the nests during harvest.

Saving Lives
Here’s a sobering stat. Light-aircraft crashes are the number one killer of wildlife biologists. A 2003 study in the Wildlife Society Bulletin found that between 1937 and 2000, a whopping 91 biologists and scientists were killed in plane or helicopter crashes. Moreover, 60 of the 91 flights were flying at low altitudes in order to observe and track wildlife. While drones will not replace wildlife biologists whilst tracking wildlife, “you still have to go where you want to do your work,” says Bird. “If you want to study polar bears in the Arctic you still need to go to the Arctic. And there are times you need manned aircraft. Counting wolf packs, for example, cannot be done with a rotary machine as it requires tracking the wolves beyond line of sight, something that is rarely permitted by Transport Canada at this time.”

Checking on Nests
Researching nesting birds of prey is particularly difficult considering many species nest on ledges on steep cliffs or in lofty trees. To even attempt to learn how many eggs or nestlings a pair has produced usually requires researchers to climb to the nests, which is time-consuming, stresses the adult birds, and is dangerous.   Or they might resort to manned helicopters which are more obtrusive, life-threatening, and not very green. Bird and Junda have used rotary machines to capture all of that information for osprey, bald eagle, ferrunginous hawk and red-tailed hawk nests.  Even better, the quality of the images that drones have been able to obtain allows researchers to estimate the ages of the nestlings and evaluate how males and females have reacted to the drone.

Assessing the Health of Wildlife Populations
It’s no secret that most kinds of human activity disturb wildlife. Researchers have found that using drones bearing cameras has been incredibly advantageous at capturing intimate moments in the lives of individual animals, as most don’t seem phased by these machines. Recently, Canadian researchers used a drone to hover just 30 metres over a killer whale pod off the coast of British Columbia to assess the health of the members. With the data, they were able to access which whales were malnourished and which were pregnant.

Doing Our Lakes Justice

By Jerika Bradford

If you’re like me, you can’t wait to spend your time on the beach soaking up the rays. And let’s not forget about all those countless hours spent swimming, fishing and canoeing with friends and family on the lake. I’ve always loved lakes and known they play an important role – but just how important?

How healthy your lake is makes a huge difference to your cottage experience. And of course it makes a big difference to the happiness and health of the wildlife that call your lake home. The first 10 to 15 metres of land surrounding lakes and rivers is responsible for 90 per cent of lake life born. That means our shorelines do all the hard work to maintain and keep life in the lakes we love!

That being said, it needs a little help. We need to lend our lakes a helping hand – okay maybe two hands – and help make it as healthy as possible. But how do we start? What do we need to do?

Our Love Your Lake program answers those very questions. It’s a locally driven program created by the Canadian Wildlife Federation and the Centre for Sustainable Watersheds. Essentially, we’re assessing the health of 11 Ontario lakes to improve and preserve natural shorelines.

What Lakes Are We Loving This Summer?

We finished training our staff a couple of weeks ago, and they’re now on the lakes surveying approximately 3,500 shorelines. If you’re on these lakes, keep an eye out for us and give us a wave!

• Renfrew – Green, Paugh and Round Lakes
• Lakeland Alliance – Chandos Lake
• Eastern Ontario – Elbow, Otty and Loughborough Lakes
• Sudbury – St. Charles, Hannah, Middle and Fairbank Lakes
• Muskoka – Peninsula Lake

When we head out to a shoreline and get our pens and paper out, we’re keeping an eye out for particular signs of shoreline health. We’re looking at the different levels of degraded, ornamental, regenerative and natural characteristics of the shoreline and property, including:

• Buffers . Is there a permanent strip of trees, shrubs, grasses and ground cover that helps to protect the water body from environmental impacts?
• Erosion . Are there any signs of it? Erosion is a common and natural process that many waterfront properties encounter. The best way to minimize erosion is to retain the natural characteristics of the shoreline.
• Lawn care. Did the landowners use pesticides and fertilizers? Those toxins can run off into the shoreline and cause a ruckus for wildlife and lake habitat.
• Hardened surfaces . Is there any rock, concrete or metal near the shoreline? These structures eliminate food and habitat for all kinds of creatures in and out of the water. And they’ll likely eventually fall into the lake too.
• Septic systems. Where are they located? It’s ideal to keep trees and cars away from the septic area and avoid using chemical cleaners, solvents and antifreeze.
• Shoreline access and landscaping. What does the path to the water look like? Steep paths that cut straight down to the water create a straight runoff for water, ending in erosion. Instead use a curvy path to the water (technically called an S-curve switchback), which will prevent erosion in the long run.

After surveying the shorelines, we compile all the data collected to give personalized reports for each landowner on the lake outlining specific actions that would improve lake water quality and shoreline health[LK3] .

For more information about Love Your Lake, visit LoveYourLake.ca.

See you on the water!

Deer Oh Deer

Article by Gaston Tessier
Images: Arlene Neilson and Corel (banner image)

Canada’s native inhabitants considered deer almost as sacred animals for the food, clothing, and tools they provided. European settlers also quickly learned the great value of deer for their meat and the deerskins sold for money to European markets.

In colonial times, people regarded all natural resources as inexhaustible. Because of this attitude, deer populations came to the brink of disaster in the 1800’s. However, with milder winters, less hunting, protective laws, fewer natural predators, and human-made habitats that offer food and cover, deer populations have increased. They are now at levels where they are causing serious damage to natural plant communities, agricultural crops, and gardens.

With the increase in the human population, cities sprang up in the heart of deer habitat. Today, over ten thousand acres of habitat continue to be lost annually to urbanization. The remaining habitat is no longer able to support existing populations. This has lead to inevitable conflicts as deer seek to survive and man tries to enjoy his garden. Since people and deer share more and more of each other’s habitat, deer damage has become a serious issue.

Deer normally venture out of the woods to feed along marshy and open areas and then retreat back into the protective cover of the trees. Edge areas, where humans have cleared the land to build houses and plant crops, have become preferred sites for deer to forage.

As deer populations continue to increase, hungry and sometimes starving animals can ruin a gardener’s efforts in just one night. They strip trees, shrubs, and other plants of foliage from ground level to a height of six feet. Deer are sometimes considered rats on hooves because of their ability to adapt to most situations. Their survival can be attributed to their keen sense of smell, binocular 270 ° field of vision, ability to communicate danger with tail flagging, and agility in escaping from predators.

An average-sized adult deer requires approximately seven pounds of leaves, stems, buds, and blades per day. That is a lot of landscaping! If they fed well, were not chased by predators, or disturbed by deterrents the first time they visited your area, you can be assured that they will return — deer are creatures of habit. The dominant animals leave scents that will be followed by other deer. Your garden has now become part of their territory!

In winter, when the snow becomes deeper, they gather for the protection of many eyes, ears, and noses to detect enemies. They survive the cold season on a meager diet of woody plant buds and evergreen branch tips. By spring, in a state of near starvation, they are very anxious to regain their lost weight. Throughout spring and summer they may come and nibble on the new and tender growth of your plants. However, it is in the fall, as winter nears, that they scrounge for anything that looks fattening. Fruits, seeds and nuts will be devoured as soon as they are available.

It is easy to recognize the damage they cause to trees and shrubs even if you have not seen them actually feeding. Since they do not have upper incisors, they are unable to neatly clip-browse as other animals do — branch tips will have a torn and ragged appearance.

Just as xeriscaping was developed to meet the demands of gardening with limited water, deer-o-scaping can be defined as a style of gardening that incorporates plants and gardening methods to discourage and minimize deer damage. Avoiding plants that deer prefer, using plants they do not like, and incorporating a garden design aimed at discouraging deer may be the only way to save your landscaping efforts.

Rural gardens and crops attract deer because they offer all their preferred food in the middle of their domain. They can find plants, animal feed, water, and salt or mineral blocks put out for livestock, within close proximity of safety.

Most suburban gardens are planted over ancestral trails that deer have used for generations to find food and water. Even if exposed to traffic, noise, strange smells, and dogs, they will come to yards in search of food. Suburban deer that have already fed extensively on gardens and flowerbeds will be the hardest to deter.

To learn about deer-resistant gardening, click on one or more of the following links:

• Plant Choice
• Landscape Design
• Deterrents
• Fencing
• Scent Deterrents
• Taste Repellants
• Visual Deterrents
• Sound and Noise Deterrents
• Other Deterrents