Five Canadian Species You Should Know

By Stephanie Bonner

This month’s Take Five focuses on Canadian wildlife; five fun species facts from coast to coast!

1. Atlantic Puffin - Sheds its colourful orange and blue beak plates after breeding season; changing its appearance so dramatically you might think it’s a different species!
2. Great Horned Owl - Silent and sly, the Great Horned Owl approaches its prey in total silence thanks to the long, stiff flight feathers which help to create thrust and lift in the owl’s flight.
3. Walrus – While trawling the sea bottom with its tusks, the walrus will use its stiff facial bristles to root out its prey from the sea floor. Talk about a messy eater!
4. Leatherback Sea Turtle – It’s the only sea turtle without a hard shell covering its back! Instead, it has a leathery skin which covers a thick layer of oil-saturated fat, tissue and small bony plates that fit together underneath.
5. Caribou – The caribou is the only member of the Cervidae family in which both the female and male carry 

Five Alternative Energy Sources Explained

By Stephanie Bonner

This month’s Take Five takes a closer look at five renewable energy sources — what they are and how they are being used.

Solar Energy

101: Solar energy is energy that comes from the sun and travels to earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The total amount of solar energy that is available to Earth is continually altered by variables such as cloud cover and Earth’s distance from the sun. Once the energy enters our atmosphere, it is measured in watts per meter (meaning how much energy is entering and at what capacity). Solar energy can be collected using solar panels which then convert it to usable energy.

At Work: Solar energy is abundant and continuous, and after the cost of the solar panels is absorbed (no pun intended), it is an extremely easy way to collect your own energy. Solar energy is popularly collected for heating and cooling and electricity.

Earth Energy (Two types: Earth and Geothermal)

101: When the temperatures found beneath the Earths surface are used to naturally generate heating or cooling processes, that is called using Earth Energy. Geothermal energy is slightly different in that it is harnessed through use of steam or hot water in the Earth’s crust. The main focus for both of these energies is that they utilize the earth as the source, which saves processed power from local grids.

At Work: Earth energies can be used to provide heating, cooling and power generation by use of bodies of water like oceans and lakes, or steam and hot water in the Earth’s crust. However, geothermal energy isn’t for every region because there need to be natural features such as cracks or holes in the Earth’s surface for the facilities to run efficiently.

Hydroelectric Power

101: Hydroelectric energy is power generated by the flow of water. At Hydroelectric facilities, dams harness water power and water flow is controlled and put through turbines that generate electric power due to the force of the water from gravity.

At Work: There needs to be a sufficient source and flow of water to accommodate hydroelectric facilities. However, Canada is rich with water and a variety of topography to house hydroelectric power. Whether it’s through waterfalls, rapids, canyons or rivers, this alternate energy source is plentiful throughout the nation.

Wind Power

101: Wind energy is created by harnessing the power of wind (the kinetic/potential energy) through turbines and transforming it into electricity and mechanical energy.  The amount of potential energy in any current of wind can vary depending on air density, pressure, temperature and altitude. As long as there are wind currents, this form of energy is sustainable and pollution free.

At Work: Wind turbine generators are popping up all over the world. They can also be connected to existing power grids and provide energy for the small homes, farms, industry and the rest of the world! This is beneficial to the majority of the population who rely on the power grid.

Bioenergy

101: Bioenergy begins as energy from the sun. Plants absorb and store this energy along with water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When the plant is harvested for energy, it is initially known as biomass. This biomass is processed to gather the stored chemical energy that the plant originally created. Finally, this stored energy is processed to become fuel.

At Work: There is no shortage of discussion on the topic of bioenergy. This sustainable energy source has many options in terms of the types of biomass that can be used, and the places it can be harvested (biodiesel which can be used in cars, biogas from certain strains of bacteria could be used the same as natural gas, bio-oil from agricultural residues for various uses). It’s all a matter of time and continued study that will determine its efficiency and sustainability on Earth.

Finding a Home for the Black Footed Ferret

By Stephanie Bonner

Photo: Paul Marinari/USFWS

Of the three species of ferret in the world, the Black-footed ferret is the only one native to North America. It is adapted to a habitat of temperate grasslands, commonly known as the Great Plains in the United States and Canada. The Black-footed ferret was thought to be extirpated in Canada since 1937, but in 1981 a rancher in Wyoming came across one of these critters, leading to the helped discovery of a small population of ferrets. The population was examined and brought into captivity to establish breeding and reintroduction programs. The initial downfall of the Black-footed ferret is thought to have originated when local farmers were eradicating troublesome prairie dog populations, the ferrets’ primary food source. The discovery of the lone Black-footed ferret population has sparked a hope in reintroducing this species back into Canada.

CWF is proud to be involved in the reintroduction program of the endangered Black-footed ferret in Canada. In partnership with Canadian Association of Zoos and Aquariums (CAZA), we will be providing $29,800 in funding over three years to the Toronto Zoo. On October 2, the Toronto Zoo released approximately 30 of these rare species into Saskatchewan’s Grasslands National Park and, through continued research and monitoring, more ferrets will be released in 2010 and 2011.

Canada isn’t the only place that has reintroduced this species, but the Toronto Zoo is the first zoo in the country to join the relocation and reintroduction program. After the ferrets are released, the hope is that they will disperse amongst their habitat. Through intense monitoring on behalf of the researchers, the ecosystem’s effects on the ferrets will be fully understood. There are also precautions to be monitored, as the ferret may have adverse effects on other local wildlife populations. The final goal is to create as natural a habitat as possible without increasing interruptions to any wildlife.

According to the Canadian Recovery Plan, the hope for the wild population of Canadian Black-footed ferrets is to have at least an 80 per cent probability of the species surviving for 20 years. Once the species is stable and its status down-listed, the Black-footed ferret can once again be considered a native species. However, it is not likely that a self-sustaining population of ferrets in Grasslands National Park will be achieved after just one release. To increase the population, additional ferrets will be released annually for at least three years. Continued monitoring will determine if there is a need for regular or occasional releases thereafter.  

Feed The Birds

By Maria MacRae

BACKYARD HABITAT

Feed the Birds
Don’t worry — there’s nothing wrong with providing food for birds over the winter, as long as you follow these guidelines.

By Maria MacRae

Watching a variety of birds visiting your yard is one of winter’s great pleasures. After all, spotting them in the wild can take effort, patience and luck, but put out a filled birdfeeder and you can see a variety of feathered species from the comfort of your home.

The best way to ensure you meet the needs of all kinds of birds throughout the seasons is to plant the right native species. These flowers, shrubs and trees will provide shelter and food in the form of seeds and berries. Supplementing this natural buffet through the use of feeders, however, allows you to provide a greater diversity of food and gives you the opportunity to see birds up close and in the clear.
Many Canadians set up birdfeeders over the winter, but can this practice have detrimental effects on bird populations? Some are concerned that providing food will affect birds’ behaviour and ability to survive on their own, but if you take a bit of care with your feeders, you have nothing to worry about.

A common concern is that birdfeeders will negatively affect migrating birds, preventing them from flying south when they should. Naturally occurring cues, in particular changes in light, are actually much stronger than the lure of abundant food sources in spurring migration in birds that travel long distances to tropical destinations.

There is speculation, however, that feeders have encouraged some birds that only migrate short distances, such as cardinals, to stay north for the winter. One European study showed a clear connection between bird feeders and a shift in the migratory behaviour of blackcaps [Sylvia atricapilla]. Populations of blackcaps from southern Germany and Austria historically migrated to Portugal for the winter, with only the occasional bird heading to Great Britain for the season. Over the last 30 years, as the availability of birdfeeders increased in Britain, these birds have increasingly overwintered there instead.

Another fear is that birds will forget how to find natural food sources, and that if feeders are ever left untended, regular visitors may starve. Studies have shown, however, that birds primarily rely on natural food sources, using feeders only as a supplementary food source. Birds that frequented birdfeeders were just as successful at surviving when those feeders were removed as ones that had never visited feeders.

A bigger potential problem is the positioning and maintenance of feeders. A poorly located birdfeeder can expose birds to the dangers of window collisions or predation by cats or hawks. Make sure your feeders are well away from windows and launching pads for predators, and keep birdfeeders clean to ensure you’re not inadvertently exposing birds to bacteria or diseases.

Setting up birdfeeders does require some work and care, but the rewards are well worth it. Seeing a diversity of colourful birds coming to take advantage of the food you have generously provided is thanks enough.

Maria MacRae is manager of the Canadian Wildlife Federation’s backyard habitat program.

Keep it CleanRegular cleaning of feeders is important to ensure that they don’t become a source of disease or contamination. Follow these tips and your feeders will be safe and effective.
- Clean birdfeeders promptly during and after a snowfall.
- Fill feeders promptly after a heavy snow or during very cold weather. Small birds must work very hard to stay warm and need more food than usual when the temperature falls below zero.
- Keep the area holding the seed clean and dry; wet food can spoil easily.
- Each time you refill the feeder, clean edges and discard any damp seed before refilling.
- Once every few weeks, empty feeders completely and wash them. Use hot soapy water and clean thoroughly with a stiff brush, getting into all corners, then dip them in a mixture of one part bleach to nine parts water. Rinse thoroughly and allow to dry completely before refilling.
- Store seed in dry, sealed containers to prevent mould and rodent or insect infestation.
- Clean under feeders regularly to prevent accumulation of wet or contaminated seeds.
- Avoid putting feed directly on the ground — seeds can quickly become damp and mouldy.

Fine FoodSunflower seeds will attract purple finches, cardinals, goldfinches, grosbeaks, juncos, chickadees, nuthatches, and many other birds. Black oil sunflower seeds are especially good due to their higher oil and calorie content. There are also plenty of commercial birdseed mixes available, but be aware that mixes containing a high proportion of ingredients such as hulled oats, rice, peanut hearts, corn and wheat can bring in pests such as pigeons, starlings and house sparrows. Suet provides a high-energy food source for woodpeckers, nuthatches and other insect-eating birds, helping them survive the harsh winter season. Just don’t leave it out in warmer weather; one study showed that partially melted fat caused problems for woodpeckers, causing matting and a loss of facial feathers. Do not put out salty, mouldy, or sugary foods.

Better Bird Feeding
- Place feeders farther than pouncing distance from dense shrubbery or other places where cats can hide. Provide shelter such as dense shrubs or trees just outside this distance as an escape from hunting hawks.
- Put feeders in a spot where you can get at them all year for refilling.
- Locate your feeders where you can see them from the window, but to reduce collisions, make sure they’re less than one metre or more than three metres away from the glass.
- If you’re still concerned about birds hitting the window, draw the drapes or hang paper, fabric or foil streamers outside.
- To attract a diversity of birds, put out a variety of feeders with different foods.
- Separating food types and feeders will help give smaller birds a chance to eat without being scared away by the larger birds. To discourage big birds, hang tubular feeders with short perches or none at all to discourage the larger birds.
- Use specially adapted feeders — weight-sensitive or surrounded by a metal cage — to allow smaller birds to feed while keeping out most larger birds and squirrels.
- For the best chance at thwarting squirrels, place feeders on posts with a baffle underneath. Make sure that cats can’t climb the post.
- Metal feeders prevent chewing by squirrels.
- Don’t put feeders over decks where spilled seed can accumulate for rodents to find.

Family Planning — Climate currents, caplin and kittiwakes

By Jodi Di Menna

Photo by Yathin S Krishnappa (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Measuring Up The climate systems around the Atlantic — from the southern United States up to Greenland and from northwestern Africa and Europe into northern Asia — in large part depend on the North Atlantic Oscillation. In simple terms, the North Atlantic Oscillation index refers to the pressure difference between the low-pressure air mass over Iceland and the high-pressure air mass over the Azores, a cluster of nine islands off the coast of Portugal. When there is a large contrast between the two air masses, the index is calculated to be positive. When the pressure difference is about average, the index is zero. And when it’s below average, the index is negative. A positive index (or a large contrast between the air masses) results in colder, drier conditions over the northwestern Atlantic and Mediterranean regions, but warmer and wetter weather in northern Europe, the eastern United States and parts of Scandinavia. Most climate models show that with a one per cent annual increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the pressure difference in the atmosphere over Iceland versus over the Azores increases, which means the index goes up and Canada’s Maritimes get blasted with colder, drier conditions. In fact, the trend in the North Atlantic Oscillation index has been toward mostly positive values over the past 30 years. Scientists link this trend to everything from milder winters in Europe to changes in sea-ice cover around Labrador and Greenland to changes in ocean circulation and fish and zooplankton distribution. -JD

For the black-legged kittiwakes nesting on the steep rocky cliffs around Witless Bay, N.L., a global-scale shift in the atmosphere is personal: Their family planning depends on it. Canadian Wildlife Service scientists have found that the success of kittiwake reproduction depends in large part on the North Atlantic Oscillation — the massive circulation pattern that rules much of the climate of the North Atlantic Ocean. It’s a worrisome find, since climate experts predict climate change will throw the oscillation out of whack.

John Chardine and his colleagues have been measuring the breeding success of the kittiwakes on the islands in Witless Bay since the early 1990s. During his observations, Chardine has seen the colonies shrink in overall size and vary tremendously from year to year in reproductive success.

In a good year, an average of between one and two chicks per nest would fledge. In the bad years, almost all the nests failed. “In a survey of a thousand nests, you might find 10 chicks. I had whole plots that I was studying where not a single chick would be fledged,” Chardine says.

Suspecting that the win-some, lose-some pattern was linked to the kittiwakes’ favoured meal — caplin, a small oily fish — Chardine began to examine the ocean conditions during the low reproduction years.

He found was that when the surface water was colder than normal, the birds failed. “We know that caplin distribution in the water is temperature related. So we think the mechanism that causes this failure is temperature changes in the water from year to year, which affect the distribution of caplin.”

But the larger question remained: What was causing the big fluctuations in water temperature?  “I had known that the North Atlantic Oscillation affected water temperatures south of Greenland and into the east coast of Newfoundland,” recalls Chardine, “so I started looking at the numbers.” 

In particular, he examined the index that is calculated each year for the North Atlantic Oscillation and compared it to the kittiwakes’ breeding success. As the index went up (which indicates colder conditions around the island of Newfoundland; see “Measuring Up,” below), the birds did poorly. When the index was negative (indicating warmer conditions), the birds did well. That finding doesn’t bode well for the birds, given that most climate models predict an increase in the North Atlantic Oscillation index over the next 100 years as a result of human-induced climate change.

Chardine suspects the link between the index and breeding is the caplins’ dislike of cold surface water. That means the fish aren’t readily available when the birds need them most.
“When you decrease the water temperatures, caplin delay their spawning. So we think one problem simply could be timing, in that the kittiwakes couldn’t get the caplin when their chicks were hatching.”

The importance of Chardine’s findings extends beyond the fate of the kittiwake population. “The birds are a very useful indicator for marine environmental quality from one year to the next,” he says.

Furthermore, the upward trend in the North Atlantic Oscillation index could have a wide-ranging influence. “It doesn’t just have an effect on kittiwakes. It affects cod and lobster and a bunch of other species,” explains Chardine. “It is an important number.”

Endangered Species on the Brink

By April Overall

Photo by: Bert de Tilly

The Canadian Wildlife Federation is kicking off the New Year with a new crop of projects to fund. In 2011, the Endangered Species Program is supporting an array of new species – from the tiny Olympia oyster to the gargantuan killer whale.

Olympia Oyster
The Olympia oyster is the sole oyster native to British Columbia and in 2003; it was listed as of special concern due to over-harvesting, sediment loads and pollution. The Centre for Shellfish Research at Vancouver Island University and the World Fisheries Trust are joining forces to boost monitoring efforts for the oyster as well as learn more about the population’s biological and habitat requirements. 

American Eels 
Assessed as of special concern in 2006, American eels in Nova Scotia have gone unnoticed for many years until now. Their Lake Ontario-Upper St. Lawrence comrades are at risk due to habitat alteration, dams, fishery harvest, fluctuation in ocean conditions and the effects of acid rain. The Bluenose Coastal Action Foundation will work to discover how Nova Scotian populations are fairing, as well as learning how their habitat affects their health.

Woodland Caribou 
One of the reasons behind the woodland caribou’s threatened status is that their population seems to be decreasing due to predation. Many calves don’t survive their first year of life due to being preyed upon by predators like wolves and black bears. Researchers at the University of Alberta’s biology department are working to reduce this threat during calving season. Read more about this project, here!

Lake Sturgeon in Saskatchewan
In the last century, the Saskatchewan River Watershed lake sturgeon numbers have dropped dramatically due to overfishing, habitat loss and fragmentation. Researchers from the Department of Biology at the University of Saskatchewan are studying the habitat preferences of young lake sturgeon. 

Cutthroat Trout 
Researchers of the Department of Zoology at the University of British Columbia are studying the environmental, biological and human factors that lead to interbreeding between the region’s native westslope cutthroat trout and the introduced rainbow trout. This will help researchers determine how best to manage at risk westslope cutthroat trout populations.

Eastern Ribbon Snake 
The Eastern ribbon snake has been listed as threatened due primarily to insufficient knowledge of the species. The Mersey Tobeatic Research Institute is hoping to change all that in Nova Scotia by increasing our knowledge of the area occupied by the species as well as determining its habitat preferences during the winter months.

Lake Sturgeon
Using acoustic tags, researchers with the University of Lethbridge will track endangered lake sturgeon in the South Saskatchewan River to learn more about the fish’s distribution, seasonal habitat use, and critical habitat. 

Snaketail Drangonfly 
The Atlantic Canada Conservation Data Centre is conducting a survey for the pygmy snaketail dragonfly along the Restigouche River in New Brunswick and the St. Mary’s River in Nova Scotia. The species was listed as of special concern in 2008, but since adults are hard to find, researchers are reliant on their exuviae (the skin they shed when they hatch).

Nooksack Dace
The endangered nooksack dace is threatened by extreme low flows in their habitat due to surface and groundwater extraction. Researchers at the University of British Columbia are studying the habitat needs of the nooksack dace to find out what kind of flow is needed to protect the species.

Blanding’s Turtle
Approximately 40 per cent of freshwater turtles around the world have been listed by the IUCN as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable. Learning every facet of their lives is critical if we are to save these reptiles. As such, researchers at Acadia University in Nova Scotia are studying the reproductive system of Canada’s Blanding’s turtle. They will research why there is such low fertility in the Nova Scotian population, how females determine fertilization, and what role territoriality plays in the reproduction system.

At-risk Turtles
Nest predation is a leading threat to the survival of turtle young; as such, researchers are increasingly utilizing nest caging which ultimately reduces nest predation from 90 per cent to 10 per cent. What researchers haven’t tested is how nest caging affects hatchling survival. That is just what researchers will examine through a study by Laurentian University.

Killer Whale
The northern resident killer whale population was deemed Threatened in 2001 due to their small population sizes, low reproductive rates, mysterious declines in numbers and human threats. The Gitga’at Land and Resource Stewardship Society and the North Shore Cetacean Society are working to identify critical habitat for Northern resident killer whales in Caamano Sound, British Columbia.

Western Painted Turtle
Due to human disturbances, the western painted turtle’s numbers are diminishing, leading assessment agencies to list it as at-risk. Thompson Rivers University is working to collect critical data about this reptile’s west coast habitat in the Arrow Lakes Reservoir in order to properly monitor the health of the population.

Fishways 
Hydropower and water management dams act as barriers to migrating fish. Fishways, meant to give fish a spot to pass through the barrier, have rarely been studied for their effectiveness. In 2005, a vertical slot fishway was installed on the Richelieu River in Quebec; it seemed to be effective in passing sturgeon and was designed to allow for entire fish communities to pass through. A Carleton University research project will test its effectiveness in this regard in order to establish design criteria for Canada’s fishways.

Turtle By-catch
Recent research has found that certain commercial fisheries methods could result in considerable amounts of bycatch including an array of turtle species like snapping, painted, musk and map turtles due to the fact that the reptiles can’t breathe while netted. A Carleton University research project is working to modify the nets in order to drive down the number of turtles caught in freshwater fishing in eastern Ontario.

Beluga Whale 
The St. Lawrence beluga whale was hunted from the 1600s to the mid 1900s, driving down their population to minimal numbers. As a result, they’ve been designated as threatened. Surviving belugas in the region have divided into various groups; however researchers are scratching their heads as to the purpose of this subdivision. Researchers at Saint Mary’s University are working to identify the factors that led to this subdivision as well as assessing how the structure affects their health.

Oregon Spotted Frog
With only three breeding populations left in Canada and 500 frogs keeping the species from extirpation, the Oregon spotted frog (Rana pretiosa) is Canada’s most at risk amphibian.  Their status is due to the lack of breeding and rearing habitats suitable to the frog. Researchers at Simon Fraser University are working to determine which method of re-introduction is best for the species.

Eggs-pecting

By April Overall

In just a few short weeks, songbirds will come flitting back to our backyards, searching for scraps to build their nests. But what happens when it’s built? How do females bond with their chicks? How do chicks get their mother’s attention? We’ve got all the answers. Just keep reading!

Sitting Pretty

Why do some birds lay one egg while others lay five per clutch? A University of California San Diego study set out to find out just that. Researchers examined the clutch sizes of 5,290 bird species and found that birds with a short life span or a low survival rate tend to lay more eggs per clutch. Birds that have longer life spans, on the other hand, lay fewer eggs per clutch but spend more time nurturing the hatchlings.

It seems environment, health, nutrition and predation are key factors behind these clutch sizes. Tropical birds generally have smaller clutch sizes due to a relatively stable climate plus with a high predation rate, the fewer eggs you have in one basket, the better for the species. Climate change is threatening to throw all this out of whack. What will happen to these tropical birds, that have adapted to predictable climates, when climate change rears its ugly head and sends temperature fluctuations their way? We’ll have to wait and see how it will affect clutch sizes and these species as a result.

Mommy Dearest

The mother child bond is created before the egg is even hatched. According to research conducted by the Zoology Department at the University of Cambridge, female canaries actually communicate with their young before they’ve hatched by changing the conditions within the egg. In turn, chicks learn what kind of life they’ll lead once they hatch.  If chicks get a message that their parents will be generous, they’ll beg more once they’re hatched. But if they get the message that their parents won’t be as attentive, they’ll gain more weight in the egg and won’t be as demanding after they’ve hatched.

It’s Getting Hot in Here

Although most songbirds lay one egg per day, they don’t start sitting on them until the last or second-last egg has been laid. That way, they can time when they start to hatch. A Cornell Lab of Orinthology study found that bluebird eggs are usually exposed to temperatures below 75˚F, but once the female tucks them underneath her, their temperatures skyrocket to 96˚F to 105˚F.

However, if eggs are exposed to warmer weather (between 75˚F and 96˚F) for longer periods of time, chicks are at risk of abnormal development and even death. In large clutches it’s usually the first eggs laid that are more likely not to hatch.

Feed me!

Once the eggs are hatched, parents work overtime trying to get all their little ones fed. But how does a hatchling ensure they get enough to eat? They use their beaks and a good set of pipes! According to BMC Ecology, Jackson’s golden-backed weaver parents are able to distinguish each chick’s call. Researchers found that the hungrier a chick got, the more it changed the length and pitch of its calls and the more unique their calls became.

Copycat….errr….bird

Just like toddlers, young songbirds mimic their parents when they learn to talk. And just like toddlers, it sounds like babbling to start. But this babbling is important to learning speech, or song in the case of songbirds.

MIT researchers found that songbirds are equipped with two brain pathways, but only one is fully developed at birth. Young songbirds must wait it out while the other matures – hence the babbling. It allows them to make mistakes and learn from them – a critical step in learning how to sing correctly.